Classical Dance Forms

Classical dance forms are codified performance arts recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi (SNA) — India's apex body for the performing arts (est. 1952) — as having roots in the ancient Sanskrit treatise the Natyashastra (Bharata Muni, c. 2nd c. BCE–2nd c. CE). There are currently eight officially recognised forms. Fix the vocabulary on first use: classical (vs folk) means a tradition with a written grammar, a treatise base, a guru-shishya lineage, and institutional recognition; the Natyashastra is the foundational performing-arts text; the SNA is the statutory academy that confers recognition. Note on number: the SNA formally lists eight; the Ministry of Culture sometimes counts nine by adding Chhau — in an exam, "eight" is the safe default.

1. Theoretical Foundation — the Natyashastra

• The Natyashastra (Bharata Muni) is the foundational text, called the "fifth Veda" (Panchamaveda). Three components of performance: Nritta (pure), Nritya (expressive), Natya (drama).
• Abhinaya (four types): Angika (body/limb), Vachika (speech/song), Aharya (costume/make-up/ornament), Sattvika (involuntary emotional reactions — the highest).
• Navarasa (nine sentiments): Shringara (love), Hasya (humour), Karuna (sorrow), Raudra (fury), Vira (heroism), Bhayanaka (terror), Bibhatsa (disgust), Adbhuta (wonder), Shanta (peace — the ninth, added by Abhinavagupta).
• Tandava vs Lasya: vigorous/masculine (Shiva) vs graceful/feminine (Parvati).
• Hand gestures (Abhinaya Darpana tradition): 28 Asamyukta (single-hand — Pataka, Tripataka, Ardhachandra, Kartarimukha, Mayura, Suchi, Alapadma, Mrigashirsha…) + 24 Samyukta (double-hand — Anjali, Kapota, Swastika, Shankha, Chakra, Garuda, Matsya…). (Bharata's own Natyashastra count differs: 24 + 13.)
• Other vocabulary: Sthanakas (standing postures), Charis (single-foot movements), Mandalas (combined foot movements); and Bhedas — movements of the eyes (Drishtibheda), neck (Grivabheda) and head (Shirobheda).

2. The Devadasi Tradition (historical origin)

• Devadasis ("servants of the god") were women dedicated to temple service, performing dance as an offering (naivedya) to the deity, not as entertainment. Bharatanatyam (then Sadir/Dasi Attam) descends directly from this tradition.
• Patronage: the Chola kings (above all — the Brihadisvara temple records 400 devadasis) and the Vijayanagara rulers; parallel temple-dancer traditions existed as the Maharis (Odisha, Jagannath temple) and the Isai Vellalar community (Tamil Nadu).
• Decline & reform: colonial-era stigma (the "anti-nautch" campaign) and the Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act, 1947 (piloted by Dr Muthulakshmi Reddy, herself from a devadasi background, and supported by E.V. Ramasamy Periyar) ended the system.
• Temple-to-stage revival: E. Krishna Iyer (a lawyer who learned Sadir to defend it) led the early revival; Rukmini Devi Arundale (founded Kalakshetra, 1936) took Bharatanatyam to the proscenium stage and renamed/"sanitised" it; T. Balasaraswati upheld the hereditary devadasi lineage and its erotic shringara repertoire — the purist (Balasaraswati) vs reformist (Rukmini Devi) debate over authenticity is a classic discussion point.

3. The Eight Classical Dance Forms

3.1 Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu). From the temple Sadir/Dasi Attam of the devadasis (Chidambaram Nataraja tradition); the early 19th-c. Thanjavur Quartet (Chinnayya, Ponnayya, Sivanandam, Vadivelu) fixed the modern recital order. Texts = Natyashastra + Abhinaya Darpana (Nandikeshvara). The recital is the Margam: Alarippu (invocatory nritta) → Jatiswaram (pure nritta to swaras) → Shabdam (first abhinaya) → Varnam (the elaborate centrepiece, nritta + nritya) → Padam & Javali (expressive) → Tillana (rhythmic finale) → Shloka/Mangalam. Geometric lines, erect torso, the half-sitting Aramandi and full-sitting Muzhumandi, crisp footwork, and simultaneous abhinaya + nritta; originally solo, Carnatic music, conducted by the Nattuvanar with cymbals (nattuvangam). Exponents: Rukmini Devi, Balasaraswati, Yamini Krishnamurthy, Padma Subrahmanyam, Mrinalini & Mallika Sarabhai. Costume: pleated Kanjeevaram silk + temple jewellery.

3.2 Kathak (UP/Rajasthan). From the temple Kathakas ("kathak" = storyteller) who narrated epics, evolving under Mughal/Nawabi court patronage into a refined Hindu-devotional + Persian fusion. Three gharanas: Lucknow (founded by Ishwari Prasad; lyrical, abhinaya, courtly — Wajid Ali Shah's patronage; Bindadin & Kalka Prasad Maharaj; Birju Maharaj, Shambhu & Lachhu Maharaj), Jaipur (vigorous tatkaar/footwork, rhythmic parans; Bhanuji), Benaras (Janaki Prasad). Features: rapid spins (chakkar), intricate footwork, ghungroo bells (up to ~100 per ankle), tihai & tukda/toda compositions, layakari; the sawal-jawab dialogue with the tabla; uses thumri/ghazal. The only North Indian classical form; the only one with a developed gharana system. Costume: Mughal anarkali / dhoti-kurta. Exponent: Sitara Devi ("Nritya Samragni").

3.3 Kathakali (Kerala). A 17th-c. dance-drama synthesising Krishnanattam, Ramanattam, Kutiyattam & Chakyar Koothu (the Raja of Kottarakkara composed Ramanattam; the Zamorin patronised Krishnanattam). Texts: Natyashastra + Hastalakshanadipika (24 basic mudras) + Balaramabharatam. No spoken dialogue — the story is sung by vocalists (ponnani & shinkidi) while the actor mimes through gesture and the navarasa eye-work; drums = Chenda, Maddalam. Vesham (make-up codes): Pacha (green — noble heroes: Krishna, Rama), Kathi (green + red knife-mark — arrogant anti-heroes: Ravana, Duryodhana), Thaadi (beards — Chuvanna/red = evil, Vella/white = divine e.g. Hanuman, Karutha/black = forest/hunter), Minukku (radiant yellow — women & sages), Kari (black — she-demons). Elaborate Chutti (built-up rice-paste frame), Kireetam headdress; all-night performance by the Kalivilakku lamp. Revival: Vallathol Narayana Menon (Kerala Kalamandalam, 1930).

3.4 Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh). From the Krishna-district village of Kuchipudi; codified by Siddhendra Yogi (17th c., author of Bhama Kalapam); originally a dance-drama performed by Brahmin men (the Bhagavatulu), with men playing female roles. Signatures: the Tarangam (dancing on the rim of a brass plate while balancing a pot/diyas) and the Jala Chitra Nrityam; uses spoken dialogue (its dance-drama root, unusual among the forms); brisk Carnatic-based footwork, rounded fluid torso. Revival: Vedantam Lakshminarayana Shastry (who opened it to women) & Vempati Chinna Satyam (turned it into a solo proscenium art); Yamini Krishnamurthy, Raja & Radha Reddy.

3.5 Odissi (Odisha). Among the oldest (the Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves and Konark carvings attest its antiquity); from the temple Mahari (devadasi) and Gotipua (boys-dressed-as-girls, acrobatic) traditions of the Jagannath temple. Texts: Abhinaya Chandrika (Maheshwara Mahapatra) + Sangita Ratnakara + Natyashastra. Signature stances: the Tribhangi (three-bend — head, torso, hip in opposing curves), Chauka (square, the masculine Jagannath stance), Abhanga & Samabhanga — lyrical, sculptural (poses mirror Konark/Bhubaneswar). Repertoire: Mangalacharan, Batu/Sthayi, Pallavi, Abhinaya (often Jayadeva's Gita Govinda), Moksha; themes of Radha-Krishna & Dashavatara. Revival: Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das, Deba Prasad Das, Sanjukta Panigrahi. Costume: Sambalpuri/Berhampuri silk + silver filigree (tarakasi).

3.6 Manipuri (Manipur). From the ancient pre-Hindu Lai Haraoba ritual, transformed by Vaishnavism under King Bhagyachandra (18th c.), who is said to have created the Maha Ras. The Rasleela (Krishna & the Gopis) is central, with five types: Maha Ras, Basanta Ras, Kunja Ras, Nitya Ras, Diba Ras. Features: no hard footwork (feet never strike the ground sharply — the earth is sacred), soft undulating "figure-of-eight" movement, the stiff cylindrical Potloi/Kumil skirt and translucent veil for women, a veiled meditative face. The masculine counterpart is the Sankirtana (Nata-Sankirtana) drum-dance with the Pung (barrel drum) & cymbals — on the UNESCO ICH list (2013); the vigorous Pung Cholom (drum dance) and Thang-Ta (martial) belong here. Revival: Rabindranath Tagore (brought it to Shantiniketan), Guru Bipin Singh, Nayana & Darshana Jhaveri, Naina Devi.

3.7 Mohiniyattam (Kerala). "Dance of the enchantress Mohini" (Vishnu's female avatar); developed in Kerala courts, codified under Swati Tirunal (19th-c. Travancore king-composer) and his court musician Vadivelu (of the Thanjavur Quartet). Pure Lasya — slow, swaying, circular grace (the "andolika" swaying); white-and-gold Kasavu saree, hair in a side-bun, minimal jewellery; sung in Sopana Sangeetam with the Edakka drum; lyrics in Manipravalam. The graceful counterpoint to Kerala's vigorous Kathakali. Revival: Vallathol & Kalamandalam, Kalyani Kutty Amma ("mother of Mohiniyattam"), Sunanda Nair, Kanak Rele.

3.8 Sattriya (Assam). From the Vaishnava monasteries (Sattras); created by saint-reformer Srimanta Sankardeva (15th–16th c.) as part of his Ankiya Naat (one-act plays) and Bhaona devotional theatre; originally performed by celibate male monks (Bhokots) within the Namghar as worship. Recognised as classical only in 2000 (the most recent addition). Music = Borgeet (Sankardeva/Madhavdeva's songs) with the Khol drum and cymbals (taal); strict hastamudras and talas. Numbers include Apsara Nritya, Behar Nritya, Chali, Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Sutradhari; both Lasya & Tandava. Costume: Muga/Pat silk with gamosa motifs. Revival: Maheswar Neog (scholar), Anwesa Mahanta.

4. Chhau — the Semi-classical Case

• A martial-rooted dance of the Chhotanagpur plateau (the name perhaps from chhauni = army camp, or chhaya = shadow/mask). All three schools were inscribed on the UNESCO ICH Representative List (2010). Themes: Mahabharata, Ramayana, Shiva-Shakti, nature; performed especially at the spring Chaitra Parva festival. "Semi-classical" because of its tribal/folk/martial origin and lack of a strict Natyashastra/abhinaya basis — though institutionally celebrated.

5. Comparison & Cross-cutting Themes

• Shared: a Natyashastra foundation, the guru-shishya parampara, a specific raga-tala music system, a codified movement-grammar, and SNA recognition.
• Differentiators: geography, costume, music (Carnatic / Hindustani / regional), gender of performers, footwork intensity, literary source, solo vs group.
• Bhakti thread: Odissi (Jayadeva), Manipuri (Rasleela), Sattriya (Sankardeva), Kuchipudi (Bhama Kalapam) all dramatise Krishna-bhakti — dance as devotion.
• Gender thread: female devadasi origin (Bharatanatyam/Odissi) vs male-monk origin (Sattriya) vs male Brahmin troupes playing women (Kuchipudi) — a rich Mains angle.

6. Quick Reference Tables

Classical dance is one of the most consistently tested culture topics — expect 1–2 direct questions a year as statement-based, match-the-pairs or assertion-reason.

In GS-I, classical dance is the vehicle for writing about unity-in-diversity, cultural revival and soft power. Examiners reward the theory→region→institution arc, not a bare list of forms.

Likely Question Types

• "Indian classical dances synthesise devotion, aesthetics and regional identity." Discuss.
• Role of revival movements in preserving/transforming classical dance; the contribution of the Natyashastra.
• The Devadasi tradition — cultural significance & social reform; compare any two forms; the role of the SNA.

Dimensions to Cover

• Textual (Natyashastra, continuing relevance); the temple→court→stage trajectory.
• Regional identity; gender (devadasi, male-only Sattriya, Kuchipudi cross-dressing).
• Colonial decline & post-Independence revival; institutionalisation (Kalakshetra, Kerala Kalamandalam, SNA).
• UNESCO/intangible heritage; globalisation and commercialisation.