Theory of Dance — Natyashastra

The Natyashastra is the ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts — drama, dance, music, poetics, and stagecraft — attributed to the sage Bharata Muni and dated roughly c. 200 BCE–200 CE. Fix the vocabulary on first use: shastra = a systematic treatise/scripture; natya = drama/dance-drama (broader than pure dance). It is the foundational text of all classical Indian performing arts and is reverently called the "fifth Veda" (Natyaveda). Its single greatest gift is Rasa theory — the science of aesthetic emotion — which makes it not a mere dance manual but India's first systematic theory of aesthetics. With ~6,000 verses it is also among the most comprehensive performance treatises in the ancient world.

1. Authorship, Dating & Composition

• Author: traditionally Bharata Muni (likely a text compiled by many hands over centuries). Mnemonic decode of "Bha-Ra-Ta": Bhava (emotion) + Raga (melody) + Tala (rhythm).
• Date: c. 200 BCE–200 CE (disputed; the range is acceptable in Mains). Language: classical Sanskrit. Length: 36 chapters (adhyayas), ~6,000 verses, covering natya, nritta, nritya, vocal & instrumental music, stagecraft, costume, make-up, theatre construction, poetics, prosody and Rasa theory.
• Transmission: an oral tradition before codification; the most important commentary is the Abhinavabharati of Abhinavagupta (c. 10th–11th c. CE), a Kashmiri Shaiva philosopher; earlier commentators (Lollata, Shankuka, Bhatta Nayaka) debated Rasa before him.
• The origin myth (Natyotpatti): in the Treta Yuga, at the gods' request, Brahma created the Natyaveda by drawing four elements from the four Vedas — pathya (recited text) from the Rigveda, gita (song) from the Samaveda, abhinaya (gesture) from the Yajurveda, and rasa (sentiment) from the Atharvaveda — and gave it to Bharata, whose hundred sons first performed it. The first plays staged were the Amrita Manthana (Churning of the Ocean) and Tripuradaha (Burning of Tripura). It was explicitly created for all four varnas to watch — the basis of its "democratic fifth Veda" reputation.
• The Jarjara & Purvaranga: the Purvaranga is the elaborate set of preliminary rituals before a play; the Jarjara (a decorated banner-staff) is worshipped on stage to ward off obstacles — the origin story explains it as Indra's flagstaff used to disperse hostile demons (Vighnas) who disrupted the first performance.

2. The Three Modes of Performing Art (the key distinction)

• Nritta — pure dance: abstract, rhythmic body movement with no meaning or emotion; built on Tala (rhythm) and Laya (tempo); purely aesthetic/technical (e.g. the jatiswaram or tillana in Bharatanatyam).
• Nritya — expressive dance: rhythm plus meaning/emotion; Abhinaya is central; conveys narrative/feeling through gesture and face (e.g. a padam or varnam).
• Natya — drama/dance-drama: the complete form = Nritta + Nritya + music + dialogue + staging; the highest form in the Natyashastra (e.g. Kathakali, Kutiyattam).
• Mnemonic: Nritta = rhythm only; Nritya = rhythm + emotion; Natya = everything. (A related pair: Marga = the classical, codified "path" tradition vs Desi = the regional/folk style.)

3. Rasa Theory — the Core Philosophical Contribution

• Rasa = the aesthetic emotion/sentiment relished by the audience (not felt by the performer); the "essence/flavour" of the art experience. Bharata's analogy: just as a fine dish (rasa = taste/juice) arises from blending many ingredients, aesthetic Rasa arises from blending dramatic elements.
• The Rasa Sutra: "Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari-bhava-samyogad rasa-nishpattih" — Rasa arises from the union of Vibhava + Anubhava + Vyabhicharibhava (acting upon the Sthayi Bhava).
• Components:
  • Vibhava (determinant): the cause of emotion — Alamban (the primary object, e.g. the beloved) + Uddipan (the exciting cause, e.g. moonlight, spring).
  • Anubhava (consequent): the visible physical manifestation (gestures, side-glances, tears, trembling).
  • Vyabhicharibhava / Sanchari Bhava: the 33 transitory emotions accompanying the dominant one (e.g. nirveda/despair, glani/weakness, shanka/apprehension, harsha/joy, chinta/anxiety, mada/intoxication, nidra/sleep, smriti/recollection, unmada/madness).
  • Sthayi Bhava: the dominant, permanent emotion that ripens into Rasa.
• The 49 Bhavas: Bharata counts 8 Sthayi + 33 Sanchari + 8 Sattvika = 49 Bhavas in all.
• The commentators' debate (how Rasa is produced): Bhatta Lollata (utpatti / production-in-the-actor), Shankuka (anumiti / inference), Bhatta Nayaka (bhukti / enjoyment via generalisation) and finally Abhinavagupta (abhivyakti / manifestation).
• Abhinavagupta's leap: he shifted Rasa from a stage technique to a philosophical/aesthetic experience in the spectator — through Sadharanikarana (universalisation), the audience transcends the personal and tastes the emotion impersonally, an experience he compared to brahma-ananda (the bliss of spiritual realisation). He also made Shanta the foundational ninth Rasa.

Note: the original Natyashastra lists eight Rasas; Shanta (the ninth) was added later, credited to Abhinavagupta's tradition — giving the Navarasa. (UPSC trap: Shanta is NOT in the original eight.) Bharata also paired the Rasas: Shringara→Hasya, Vira→Adbhuta, Raudra→Karuna, Bibhatsa→Bhayanaka (each "derives" the next).

4. Abhinaya — the Four Means of Expression

• Angika — expression through the body (limbs, gestures, posture, gait); subdivided into Anga, Pratyanga, Upanga (see §5).
• Vachika — expression through voice/speech/song (tone, intonation, recitation); includes the rules of language, metre and the kaku (voice modulation).
• Aharya — expression through costume, make-up, jewellery, props, stage design (most elaborate in Kathakali's coded colour make-up).
• Sattvika — expression through involuntary emotional states; considered the highest, since it springs from genuine inner feeling (sattva) and cannot be faked. The 8 Sattvika Bhavas (Ashtasattvika): Stambha (stupor/paralysis), Sveda (perspiration), Romanca (horripilation/goosebumps), Svarabhedha (breaking of the voice), Vepathu (trembling), Vaivarnya (change of colour/pallor), Ashru (tears), Pralaya (fainting/loss of consciousness).

5. Hasta Mudras (Hand Gestures) & the Angika Breakdown

• Asamyukta Hastas (single-hand) — 24: Pataka, Tripataka, Ardhapataka, Kartarimukha, Mayura, Ardhachandra, Arala, Shukatunda, Mushti, Shikhara, Kapittha, Katakamukha, Suchi, Chandrakala, Padmakosha, Sarpashirsha, Mrigashirsha, Simhamukha, Kangula, Alapadma, Chatura, Bhramara, Hamsasya, Hamsapaksha. (Each carries multiple meanings — e.g. Pataka = flag/stop/blessing/cloud; Suchi = "one/the number 1"/pointing.)
• Samyukta Hastas (combined/double-hand) — 13: Anjali, Kapota, Karkata, Swastika, Dola, Pushpaputa, Utsanga, Shivalinga, Katakavardhana, Kartariswastika, Shakata, Shankha, Chakra.
• Nritta Hastas — gestures used purely in abstract dance (the Natyashastra lists 30; the Abhinaya Darpana lists fewer).
• Angika body-parts: Anga (6 major limbs: head, hands, chest, sides/waist, hips, feet) · Pratyanga (6 minor: shoulders, arms, back, belly, thighs, shanks) · Upanga (6 subsidiary on the face: eyes, eyebrows, nose, cheeks/lips, chin, & the neck). The head (Shiras) has 13 movements, and there are codified movements of the breast, sides, belly and hips too.

6. Eye Movements & Facial Expression

• Drishti (gazes): 8 Sthayi (one per Rasa) + 8 Nritta + 20 Sanchari — e.g. Sama, Alolita, Sachi, Pralokita, Nimilita, Ullokita, Avalokita, Anuvritta. The Natyashastra also lists movements of the eyeballs (Tara, 9) and eyelids (Puta, 9).
• Mukhabhinaya (facial): 9 expressions for the 9 Rasas, built from coded movements of eyebrows (Bhru, 7), nose (Nasika, 6), cheeks (Kapola, 6), lips (Adhara, 6), chin (Chibuka, 7) and neck (Griva, 9: Sama, Nata, Unnata, Tryasra, Recita, Kuncita, Anchita, Vahita, Vivartita).

7. Tandava vs Lasya

• "Tandava" is named after Shiva's attendant Tandu, who imparted it to Bharata. Tradition lists seven famous Tandavas of Shiva: Ananda (bliss), Sandhya (twilight), Samhara/Rudra (destruction), Tripura, Urdhva (raised-leg), Uma/Gauri, and Muni/Kali Tandava. Bharatanatyam draws its Nritta from Tandava vocabulary and its expressive grace from Lasya.

8. Tala, Laya, Karanas & Chidambaram

• Tala = rhythmic cycle; Laya = tempo (Vilamba/slow, Madhya/medium, Druta/fast); Matra = the basic time-unit; Marga talas are the older system described by Bharata.
• 108 Karanas — the basic units of dance (the simultaneous movement of hasta + pada + body), strung into 32 Angaharas; built on 32 Charis (leg movements — 16 bhauma/ground + 16 akashiki/aerial) and 10 Mandalas (stance sequences). A pair of Charis = a Karana; combined Karanas = Angahara; combined Angaharas = a full dance.
• The 108 Karanas are carved in stone in the gopurams of the Chidambaram Nataraja temple (Tamil Nadu) — tangible proof that text, dance and temple sculpture were one tradition (also seen at Thanjavur, Kumbakonam and the Brihadisvara temple). Shiva Nataraja = "Lord of Dance" performing the cosmic Ananda Tandava within a ring of fire.

9. The Theatre & Stage (Natya Mandapa)

• Shapes: Vikrishta (rectangular/oblong), Chaturasra (square), Tryasra (triangular). Sizes: Jyeshtha (large, ~96 hastas, for gods), Madhyama (medium, ~64, for kings), Avara (small, ~32). The medium rectangular type was held ideal for good acoustics.
• Stage divisions: Rangapitha (the main acting area), Rangashirsha (the raised back-stage), Nepathyagriha (the green/dressing room behind), with the Mattavarani (side wings) — plus prescribed pillars (varna-coded for the four castes), acoustics and seating — showing the Natyashastra is a complete theatre science, not just a dance text.

10. Styles, Modes & Forms of Drama

• Four Vrittis (stylistic modes): Bharati — verbal/literary (dialogue-heavy); Sattvati — heroic/grand; Arabhati — martial/vigorous (combat, magic); Kaisiki — delicate/erotic (love, grace). Kaisiki is regarded as the origin of pure dance (the Nritta/Lasya tradition).
• Four Pravrittis (regional styles): Avanti (west), Dakshinatya (south), Panchali (north), Odra-Magadhi (east) — an early "map" of regional performance manners.
• Two Dharmis (modes of representation): Lokadharmi (realistic/natural, drawn from everyday life) vs Natyadharmi (stylised/conventional, the codified theatrical idiom).
• Dasarupaka (the ten types of drama): Nataka, Prakarana, Bhana, Vyayoga, Samavakara, Dima, Ihamriga, Anka (Utsrishtikanka), Vithi, Prahasana — differing by plot, hero and sentiment. (Dhananjaya's Dasharupaka later codified these.)
• Siddhi (success): a performance can win daivi (divine) and manushi (human) success — Bharata even lists the desirable audience responses (smiles, applause, exclamations) as signs of success.

11. Influence on the Classical Dance Forms

(The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognises eight classical forms; Kutiyattam — the living Sanskrit theatre of Kerala — is the closest surviving descendant of Natyashastra-style Natya and is UNESCO-listed.)

12. Related & Supplementary Texts

The Natyashastra is a direct, fact-rich Prelims source — questions on numbers, names, authors and the Nritta/Nritya/Natya and Rasa distinctions. Expect 1–2 questions a cycle, often statement-based.

In GS-I, the Natyashastra is the anchor for writing about Indian aesthetics, the performing arts and cultural continuity. The examiner wants the aesthetic/philosophical reading, not a dance-form catalogue.

Likely Question Types

• "Natyashastra is a comprehensive theory of aesthetics, not merely a dance manual." Discuss.
• Explain Rasa theory; how did Abhinavagupta develop it further?
• "It reflects the integration of the performing arts with Indian philosophy." Examine; how does it still shape classical dance?
• Distinguish Nritta/Nritya/Natya with examples.

Dimensions to Cover

• Textual (author, date, place in tradition); philosophical (Rasa & Bhava theory, aesthetics).
• Technical (Abhinaya, Hastas, Karanas, Tala); cultural (influence on dance, Chidambaram/Nataraja).
• Social (the text's address to all four varnas; the Devadasi tradition); contemporary (revival, UNESCO/SNA).